Humanism...

HUMANISM AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL PARADIGM
 
To appear as a chapter in C. Dills & A. Romiszowski (Eds.), Instructional development: State of the art paradigms in the field (Volume Three). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, in press.


Ralph G. Brockett
Associate Professor
University of Tennessee
Knoxville, Tennessee
 



INTRODUCTION

Effective instructional design begins with an understanding of the basic assumptions that underlie the design and development process. This is, essentially, the philosophy that an educator brings to the instructional situation. One's educational philosophy can be articulated by responding to such questions as: (a) What do I believe about human nature? (b) What is the basic purpose of learning and instruction? (c) What do I believe about the abilities and potential of the learners with whom I work?
Humanism provides a way of looking at the instructional design process that emphasizes the strengths the learner brings to the instructional setting. It is an optimistic perspective that celebrates the potential of learners to successfully engage in the instructional process. Although humanism is sometimes subject to criticism regarding its basic tenets, and is perceived by some as an irrelevant way to deal with the instructional needs of the present and future, most of these criticisms are based on misunderstandings of beliefs underlying the paradigm and how these beliefs are played out in practice. Ultimately, humanism can and should have an important role to play in the future of instructional development.
The purpose of this chapter is to offer an examination of humanism and its potential within the state of the art of instructional design theory and practice. The chapter will begin with a look at the philosophical and psychological underpinnings of humanism. Emphasis will then shift to an examination of how principles of humanism can be applied to the instructional development process. Next, some potential limitations of the paradigm will be mentioned. Finally, several conclusions will be gleaned from the discussion relative to the value of humanism as an instructional design model.
 

THE NATURE OF HUMANISM

Humanism has variously been described as a philosophy, a theory of psychology, and an approach to educational practice. Each of these is accurate. Philosophy and psychology provide a foundation for the understanding of humanism, while education serves a "playing field" upon which these principles are implemented in practice. This section will examine the philosophical and psychological backgrounds while the following section focuses upon the application of these principles to instructional practice.
 

Humanism as a Philosophy

Humanism is a paradigm that emphasizes the freedom, dignity, and potential of humans. According to Lamont (1965), humanism can be defined as "a philosophy of joyous service for the greater good of all humanity in this natural world and advocating the methods of reason, science, and democracy" (p. 12). Elias and Merriam (1980) state that humanism is "as old as human civilization and as modern as the twentieth century" (p. 109). Early threads of humanist thought can be found in the works of Confucius, Greek philosophers such as Progagoras and Aristotle, Renaissance philosophers Erasmus and Montaigne, Spinoza in the 17th century and Rousseau in the 18th century. In the 20th century, Bertrand Russell, George Santayana, Albert Schweitzer, and Reinhold Niebuhr have all made contributions to contemporary humanism. Similarly, Nietzche, Tillich, Buber, and Sartre have contributed to the development of existentialism, a contemporary form of humanism (Elias & Merriam, 1980; Lamont, 1965).
Rooted in the idea that "human beings are capable of making significant personal choices within the constraints imposed by heredity, personal history, and environment" (Elias & Merriam, 1980, p. 118), principles of humanist philosophy stress the importance of the individual and specific human needs. Lamont (1965) has outlined 10 central propositions of humanist philosophy. These can be summarized as follows:
 
1. Humanism is based on a naturalistic metaphysics that views all forms of the supernatural as myth;
2. Humanism believes that humans are an evolutionary product of nature and, since body and personality are inseparably united, one "can have no conscious survival after death (p. 13);
3. Humanism holds that "human beings possess the power or potentiality of solving their own problems, through reliance primarily upon reason and scientific method applied with courage and vision" (p. 13);
4. Humanism holds that because individuals "possess freedom of creative choice and action," they are within limits, "masters of their own destiny"; in this way, humanism is in contrast with views of universal determinism, as well as fatalism and predestination (p. 13);
5. Humanism stresses a view of ethics or morality based in present-life experiences and relationships and emphasizes "this-worldly happiness, freedom, and progress" of all humans (p. 13);
6. Humanism believes that individuals attain the good life by combining personal growth and satisfaction with commitment to the welfare of the entire community;
7. Humanism places great value in aesthetics, and thus, emphasizes the value of art and the awareness of beauty;
8. Humanism values actions that will promote the establishment of "democracy, peace, and a high standard of living" throughout the world (p. 14);
9. Humanism advocates the use of reason and scientific method and, as such, supports democratic procedures such as freedom of expression and civil liberties in all realms of life;
10. Humanism supports "the unending questioning of basic assumptions and convictions, including its own" (p. 14).
In summarizing the essence of these points, Lamont (1965) offers the following observation:
Humanism is the viewpoint that men [sic] have but one life to lead and should make the most of it in terms of creative work and happiness; that human happiness is its own justification and requires no sanction or support from supernatural sources; that in any case the supernatural, usually conceived of in the form of heavenly gods or immortal heavens, does not exist; and that human beings, using their own intelligence and cooperating liberally with one another, can build an enduring citadel of peace and beauty upon this earth. (p. 14)
 
In a discussion of humanistic philosophy directed toward its application to the field of adult education, Elias and Merriam (1980) summarize the major beliefs of humanism as: (a) human nature is inherently good; (b) individuals are essentially free and autonomous within the constraints of heredity, personal history, and environment; (c) each person is unique with unlimited potential for growth; (d) self-concept plays a key role in influencing development; (e) individuals possess an urge toward self-actualization; (f) reality is a personally defined construct; and (g) individuals are responsible to themselves and to others. While it is clear that the ideas presented by Elias and Merriam are compatible with those of Lamont, by emphasizing notions such as self-concept and self-actualization, the Elias and Merriam description serves as a natural link between humanism as a philosophy and as a theory of psychology.
 

Humanistic Psychology

For the first half of the 20th century, psychology was primarily influenced by two schools of thought. One of these was psychoanalytic theory, perhaps best represented by Freudian psychoanalysis. The other was behaviorism, reflected in the research and theories of Watson, Hull, and Skinner. However, throughout the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s psychologists such as Gordon Allport, Henry Murray, Gardner Murphy, and George Kelly began to present views "which rejected both the mechanistic premises of behaviorism and the biological reductionism of classical psychoanalysis" (Smith, 1990, p. 8). Thus, it was out of response to both the determinism inherent in psychoanalysis and the limited importance placed on affect, dignity, and freedom found in behaviorism that gave rise to what is sometimes called the "third force" of psychology: humanism.
In describing the development of humanistic psychology, Smith (1990) has noted that the approach began to be recognized as a "movement" during the mid- 1960s. It is important to note, however, that there is no single conception of humanistic psychology; rather, many individuals contributed different elements to the movement. For instance, Charlotte Buhler emphasized the notion of life-span development. Rollo May emphasized European existentialism and phenomenology. The encounter group movement was a vital aspect of humanistic psychology in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly through the work of J.L. Moreno and his development of psychodrama, Kurt Lewin and field theory, and Fritz Perls and his work with Gestalt therapy. And Viktor Frankl, in part through his personal experiences during the holocaust, developed logotherapy as "an account of the human predicament that emphasizes the human need to place death and suffering in a context of human meaning that can be lived with" (Smith, 1990, p. 14).
Probably the two individuals who have had the greatest influence on humanistic psychology, however, were Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Rogers' approach to therapy was originally described as "nondirective counseling" (1942), but was later recast as "client-centered therapy" (1951, 1961). The essence of Rogers' thinking was that human beings have a tendency toward self- actualization; however, the way in which individuals are socialized often blocks that urge. According to Rogers, a therapeutic relationship based on the values of unconditional positive regard, accurate empathic understanding, and honesty and integrity can help individuals fulfill their greatest potential (Smith, 1990). Through this process, Rogers demonstrated his belief in the potential of his clients and his trust in their ability to take responsibility for their lives.
 
A major goal of Rogerian therapy is to help individuals foster a greater level of self-direction. According to Rogers, self-direction "means that one chooses - and then learns from the consequences" (Rogers, 1961, p. 171). Self- direction is where a person can see a situation clearly and takes responsibility for that situation (Rogers, 1983). This notion of self-direction has important implications for educational practice which will be discussed later in this chapter as well as in subsequent chapters in this volume by Sisco and Hiemstra.
 
Maslow developed a theory of human motivation originally presented in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality, which was revised in 1970. This theory holds that needs are arranged in ascending order: physiological needs, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Maslow described the first four levels as "deficiency" needs, in that one must be able to meet needs at a lower level prior to working toward the needs at the next level.
 
As with Rogers, Maslow designated "self-actualization" as an ideal to work toward achieving. Self-actualization, according to Maslow, is the highest level of human growth, where one's potential has been most fully realized. Maslow held that self-actualizers tend to "possess a more efficient view of reality and a corresponding tolerance of ambiguity; be accepting of themselves and others; demonstrate spontaneous behavior that is in tune with their own values and not necessarily tied to the common beliefs and practices of the culture; focus on problems that lie outside of themselves, thus demonstrating a highly ethical concern; maintain a few extremely close interpersonal relationships rather than seek out a large number of less intense friendships; and possess high levels of creativity" (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991, p. 126).